master phase

* * *

1. (в теории колебаний и волн, термодинамике, электротехнике) phase

в фа́зе — in phase

не в фа́зе — out of phase

обеспе́чивать опереже́ние по фа́зе — advance a phase

осажда́ть какую-л. фа́зу — precipitate a phase, cause a phase to precipitate

отлича́ться [различа́ться] по фа́зе — differ [be different] in phase

отстаю́щий по фа́зе — lagging [retarding] in phase

противополо́жный по фа́зе — opposite in phase, out of phase by p, in anti-phase

сдви́нутый по фа́зе — out of phase; displaced in phase

совпада́ющий по фа́зе — in phase

2. (стадия, этап) phase, stage

устана́вливать фа́зу вчт. — set a phase, set the (so-and-so) phase condition

беспоря́дочная фа́за — random phase

во́дная фа́за — aqueous phase

временна́я фа́за — time phase

га́зовая фа́за — gas(eous) phase

газообра́зная фа́за — gas(eous) phase

грани́чная фа́за — boundary phase

диспе́рсная фа́за — disperse(d) [discontinuous] phase

дифференциа́льная фа́за тлв. — differential phase

жи́дкая фа́за — liquid phase

фа́за за́паха, втора́я — middle note

фа́за за́паха, пе́рвая — first note, topnote

фа́за за́паха, тре́тья — basic [lingering, residual] note

исполни́тельная фа́за ( программы или команды) вчт. — execute phase

испра́вная фа́за эл. — sound [healthy] phase

конденси́рованная фа́за — condensed phase

фа́за кристаллиза́ции — crystallization phase

кристалли́ческая фа́за — crystal (line) phase

фа́за Луны́ — phase of the Moon, lunar phase

мё́ртвая фа́за хим. — dead [weak] phase

метастаби́льная фа́за — metastable phase

нача́льная фа́за ( периодического колебания) — epoch (angle), initial phase

неиспра́вная фа́за эл. — faulty [faulted] phase

нейтра́льная фа́за — neutral phase

непреры́вная фа́за ( в дисперсионных средах) — continuous phase

норма́льная фа́за ( несверхпроводящая) — normal phase

обра́тная фа́за — reversed phase

одноро́дная фа́за — continuous phase

основна́я фа́за — master phase

отрица́тельная фа́за — minus phase

парова́я фа́за — vapour phase

парообра́зная фа́за — vapour phase

перехо́дная фа́за — transition phase

фа́за поко́я — dwell phase

положи́тельная фа́за — plus phase

произво́льная фа́за — arbitrary phase

промежу́точная фа́за — intermediate phase

противополо́жная фа́за — opposite [reversed] phase, antiphase

рабо́чая фа́за ( стартстопного телеграфного аппарата) — range

фа́за рассе́яния — scattering phase

фа́за раствори́теля — solvent phase

расще́пленная фа́за — split phase

сверхпроводя́щая фа́за — superconducting phase

си́гма-фа́за метал. — sigma phase

сопряжё́нная фа́за — conjugate phase

стациона́рная фа́за — stationary phase

стеклови́дная фа́за — vitreous phase

твё́рдая фа́за — solid phase

1) Geology: basified phase

2) Engineering: master phase

3) Telecommunications: core phase

4) Makarov: basic phase

* * *

восстановле́ние изображе́ния с по́мощью гологра́ммы — hologram reconstruction of an original object

запи́сывать гологра́мму — record a hologram

просве́чивать гологра́мму — illuminate a hologram

аберрацио́нная гологра́мма — aberrated hologram

адресу́ющая гологра́мма — addressing hologram

акусти́ческая гологра́мма — acoustical [acoustically formed] hologram

амплиту́дная гологра́мма — absorption [amplitude] hologram

амплиту́дно-фа́зовая гологра́мма — absorption-phase [mixed] hologram

безли́нзовая гологра́мма — lensless hologram

бина́рная гологра́мма — binary hologram

бихромати́ческая гологра́мма — two-colour hologram

гологра́мма в ви́димом све́те — visible-light hologram

гологра́мма в га́мма-луча́х — gamma-ray hologram

внеосева́я гологра́мма — off-axis [offset, spatial carrier] hologram

гологра́мма высо́кого разреше́ния — high-resolution hologram

дви́жущаяся гологра́мма — animated hologram

двухчасто́тная гологра́мма — two-frequency hologram

двухэкспозицио́нная гологра́мма — double-exposed [double-exposure, double-pulse] hologram

жи́дкостная гологра́мма — liquid hologram

запи́санная гологра́мма — recorded hologram

запи́санная гологра́мма с протяжё́нным исто́чником — extended source hologram

избы́точная гологра́мма — redundant hologram

ла́зерная гологра́мма — laser hologram

лине́йно зарегистри́рованная гологра́мма — linearly recorded hologram

маши́нная гологра́мма — computed [computer] hologram

многоцве́тная гологра́мма — multicolour hologram

многоэкспозицио́нная гологра́мма — multiexposed [multiple(-exposed), multiple-exposure] hologram

монохромати́ческая гологра́мма — monochrome [single-colour] hologram

мультиплици́руемая гологра́мма — master hologram

нало́женные гологра́ммы — superimposed holograms

гологра́мма на несу́щей частоте́ — carrier frequency [spatial carrier] hologram

нелине́йно-зарегистри́рованная гологра́мма — nonlinearly recorded hologram

неотбелё́нная гологра́мма — unbleached hologram

неподви́жная гологра́мма — still hologram

объё́мная гологра́мма — volume [deep] hologram

однокра́тно экспони́рованная гологра́мма — single-exposed hologram

односло́йная гологра́мма — single-layer hologram

осева́я гологра́мма — uniaxial [in-line] hologram

отбелё́нная гологра́мма — bleached hologram

отража́тельная гологра́мма — reflectance [reflection] hologram

панора́мная гологра́мма — panoramic hologram

пове́рхностная гологра́мма — surface hologram

полуто́новая гологра́мма — gray [half-tone] hologram

гологра́мма, полу́ченная при некогере́нтном освеще́нии — incoherent hologram

гологра́мма преобразова́ния Фурье́ — Fourier-transform hologram

пропуска́ющая гологра́мма — transmission hologram

проя́вленная гологра́мма — developed hologram

реконструи́рованная гологра́мма — reconstructed hologram

релье́фная гологра́мма — relief hologram

рентге́новская гологра́мма — X-ray hologram

гологра́мма с высо́кой избы́точностью — highly redundant hologram

синтези́рованная гологра́мма — synthesized [synthesizing, synthetic] hologram

гологра́мма, синтези́рованная ЭВМ — computer synthesized [computer-generated] hologram

скаля́рная гологра́мма — scalar hologram

гологра́мма с коди́рованным опо́рным пучко́м — coding reference beam hologram

гологра́мма с ни́зким у́ровнем шумо́в — low-noise hologram

гологра́мма с опти́ческим стира́нием — optically erasable hologram

стира́емая гологра́мма — erasable hologram

гологра́мма с уме́ньшенной ширино́й полосы́ — reduced bandwidth hologram

гологра́мма сфокуси́рованного изображе́ния — focused-image [in-focus] hologram

телевизио́нная гологра́мма — television [TV] hologram

термопласти́ческая гологра́мма — thermoplastic hologram

то́лстая гологра́мма — thick hologram

то́нкая гологра́мма — thin hologram

то́чечная гологра́мма — point hologram

уплотнё́нная гологра́мма — multiplex(ed) [multiplexing] hologram

фа́зовая гологра́мма — phase hologram

фазоконтра́стная гологра́мма — phase-contrast hologram

фотохро́мная гологра́мма — photochromic hologram

фраунго́ферова гологра́мма — Fraunhofer (diffraction) hologram

френе́лева гологра́мма — Fresnel (diffraction) hologram

фурье́-гологра́мма — Fourier(-transform) hologram

цветна́я гологра́мма — colour hologram

цилиндри́ческая гологра́мма — cylidrical hologram

чистофа́зовая гологра́мма — pure phase [only phase, phase-only] hologram

экспони́рованная гологра́мма — exposed [exposure] hologram

этало́нная гологра́мма — master hologram

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

 

параллельная система ИБП
-
[Интент]

Parallel Operation: The system shall have the option to install up to four (4) UPSs in parallel configuration for redundancy or capacity.
1. The parallel UPS system shall be of the same design, voltage, and frequency. UPS modules of different size ratings shall be permitted to be paralleled together for purposes of increased capacity or UPS module redundancy. The UPSs in the parallel configuration shall not be required to have the same load capacity rating.
2. Parallel Capacity: With N+0 system-level redundancy, up to 2MW of load can be supported by the system.
3. Parallel Redundancy: With N+1 system-level redundancy, up to 1.5MW of load can be supported by the system, and only the UPS being replaced must be isolated from the source (bypass operation is not required for the entire system during the UPS replacement procedure).
4. Output control: A load sharing circuit shall be incorporated into the parallel control circuits to ensure that under no-load conditions, no circulating current exists between modules. This feature also allows each UPS to share equal amounts of the total critical load bus. The output voltage, output frequency, output phase angle, and output impedance of each module shall operate in uniformity to ensure correct load sharing. This control function shall not require any additional footprint and shall be an integral function of each UPS. The static bypass switches shall be connected in parallel.
5. Parallel System Controls: To avoid single points of failure, the UPS system shall have no single dedicated control system designed to control the operation of the parallel UPS system. Control of and direction of parallel UPSs shall take place via a master/slave relationship, where the first UPS to receive logic power asserts itself as a master. In the event of a master failure, a slave UPS shall take the role of master and assume the responsibility of the previous master UPS. Regardless of which UPS is master or slave, user changes to the system status, such as request for bypass, can be done from any UPS connected to the bus and all UPS on the bus shall transfer in simultaneously.
6. Communication: Communication between modules shall be connected so that the removal of any single cable shall not jeopardize the integrity of the parallel communication system. Load sharing communications shall be galvanically isolated for purposes of fault tolerance between UPS modules. A UPS module's influence over load sharing shall be inhibited in any mode where the UPS inverter is not supporting its output bus. Transfers to and from bypass can be initiated from any online UPS in the system.
7. Display: Each UPS multi-color LCD touch screen user interface shall be capable of using an active touch screen mimic bus to show the quantity of UPS(s) connected to the critical bus, as well as the general status of each UPS, such as circuit breaker status information. Any touchscreen display shall support the configuration of the [entire parallel] system and shall provide event and alarm data for all UPSs in the parallel configuration. A Virtual Display Application shall be available for download to the customer’s computer and shalll support remote monitoring of a complete system with up to 4 UPSs in parallel.
8. Battery runtime: Each UPS must have its own battery solution. The battery solution for the entire system can be a combination of standard and third-party batteries, but each UPS must use only one battery solution – either standard or third-party batteries.
9. Switchgear: A custom switchgear option shall be required for parallel operation.

[Schneider Electric]

Тематики

• источники и системы электропитания

EN

• parallel UPS system

* * *

1. ( электромашинный) generator

включа́ть генера́тор на нагру́зку — cause a generator to pick up (the) load

генера́тор возбужда́ется — the generator builds up

в слу́чае вы́хода генера́тора из стро́я … — upon loss of a generator …

генера́тор выде́рживает нагру́зку (напр. номинальную) [m2]в тече́ние … — the generator carries its (e. g., rated) load for …

генера́тор искри́т под щё́тками — the generator sparks under the brushes

генера́торы нагружа́ются равноме́рно ( при параллельной работе) — the generators divide the load well

генера́тор нагру́жен норма́льно ( при параллельной работе) — the generator takes its share of load

генера́тор начина́ет возбужда́ться — the generator picks up

генера́тор недогру́жен ( при параллельной работе) — the generator takes less than its share of the load

генера́тор перегру́жен ( при параллельной работе) — the generator takes more than its share of the load

генера́тор перехо́дит в режи́м электродви́гателя — the generator goes motoring

генера́тор рабо́тает на холосто́м ходу́ — the generator operates at no load

генера́тор рабо́тает паралле́льно с … — the generator operates in parallel with …

разгоня́ть генера́тор — allow a generator to come up to speed, bring up a generator to speed

генера́торы синхронизи́рованы ( при параллельной работе) — the generators are in synchronism

синхронизи́ровать генера́торы по загора́нию ламп — synchronize the generators by the light-lamp method, synchronize light

синхронизи́ровать генера́торы по погаса́нию ламп — synchronize the generators by the dark-lamp method, synchronize dark

ста́вить генера́тор под нагру́зку — throw a generator on (the) load

2. ( источник электрических или электромагнитных колебаний)

1) ( первичный источник колебаний) oscillator

2) ( источник сигналов) generator

возбужда́ть генера́тор — drive an oscillator

запуска́ть генера́тор — activate [enable, turn on] an oscillator

настра́ивать генера́тор измене́нием ё́мкости — tune an oscillator capacitively [by varying the tuned-circuit capacitance]

настра́ивать генера́тор измене́нием индукти́вности — tune an oscillator inductively [by varying the tuned-circuit inductance]

генера́тор начина́ет генери́ровать — the oscillator is kicked into oscillations

отключа́ть генера́тор — disable [turn off] an oscillator

переводи́ть генера́тор в двухта́ктный режи́м — convert an oscillator to push-pull operation

генера́тор постро́ен на ла́мпе …— the oscillator uses [is based on, is built around] a … valve

генера́тор постро́ен по схе́ме (напр. ёмкостной трёхточки) — the oscillator is (set up as) a … (e. g., Colpitts circuit)

генера́тор раска́чивается — the oscillator is building [builds] up (oscillation)

синхронизи́ровать генера́тор какой-л. частото́й — lock an oscillator to a frequency

срыва́ть колеба́ния в генера́торе — quench [turn off] an oscillator

авари́йный генера́тор — emergency generator

асинхро́нный генера́тор — induction generator

ацетиле́новый генера́тор — acetylene generator

ацетиле́новый генера́тор систе́мы «вода́ на карби́д» — water-to-carbide acetylene generator

ацетиле́новый генера́тор систе́мы вытесне́ния — recession(-type) acetylene generator

ацетиле́новый генера́тор систе́мы «карби́д в во́ду» — carbide-to-water acetylene generator

ацетиле́новый генера́тор систе́мы погруже́ния — dipping(-type) acetylene generator

ацетиле́новый генера́тор сухо́го ти́па — dry-residue acetylene generator

аэрозо́льный генера́тор — aerosol generator, fogger

бала́нсный генера́тор — balanced oscillator

генера́тор бегу́щей волны́ — traveling-wave-tube [TWT] oscillator

бесколле́кторный генера́тор — brushless generator

бесщё́точный генера́тор — brushless generator

генера́тор бие́ний — beat-frequency oscillator

брызгозащищё́нный [брызгонепроница́емый] генера́тор — splash-proof generator

генера́тор Ван-де-Гра́афа — Van de Graaf [(electrostatic) belt] generator

вертика́льный генера́тор — vertical-shaft generator

генера́тор видеочастоты́ — video-frequency signal generator

генера́тор возбужда́ющих и́мпульсов — drive-pulse generator, driver

вольтодоба́вочный генера́тор — booster (generator)

вспомога́тельный генера́тор — auxiliary generator

генера́тор вызывно́го то́ка — ringing generator

генера́тор высо́кой частоты́

1. (исходный или задающий источник в. ч. колебаний) radio-frequency oscillator

2. (блок, включающий задающий в. ч. генератор, усилители, множители частоты и т. п.) radio-frequency generator

га́нновский генера́тор — Gunn(-effect) oscillator

генера́тор гармо́ник ( не путать с генера́торами гармони́ческих или синусоида́льных колеба́ний) — harmonic generator (not to be confused with a harmonic or sinusoidal oscillator)

гетерополя́рный генера́тор — cross-field [heteropolar] generator

гла́вный генера́тор мор. — propulsion generator

генера́тор гла́вных синхронизи́рующих и́мпульсов — master clock

гомополя́рный генера́тор — homopolar generator

горизонта́льный генера́тор — horizontal-shaft generator

двухко́нтурный генера́тор — tuned-input, tuned-output oscillator

двухполя́рный генера́тор — bipolar generator

двухта́ктный генера́тор — push-pull oscillator

джозефсо́новский генера́тор — Josephson source

диапазо́нный генера́тор — variable-frequency oscillator, VFO

динатро́нный генера́тор — dynatron oscillator

дугово́й генера́тор — arc converter

ё́мкостно-резисти́вный генера́тор — RC-oscillator

задаю́ший генера́тор — master oscillator

генера́тор заде́ржанных и́мпульсов — delayed pulse oscillator

генера́тор заде́ржки — delay generator

генера́тор за́днего полустро́ба — late-gate generator

закры́тый генера́тор — (totally) enclosed generator

запира́ющий генера́тор — blanking-pulse generator

заря́дный генера́тор — charging generator

звуково́й генера́тор — audio-signal [tone] generator

генера́тор звуково́й частоты́ — audio-signal [tone] generator, audio(-frequency) oscillator

генера́тор звуково́й частоты́, вызывно́й — voice-frequency ringing generator, low-frequency signalling set

зу́ммерный генера́тор — buzzer oscillator

измери́тельный генера́тор — ( без модуляции выходного сигнала) test oscillator; ( с модуляцией выходного сигнала) signal generator

генера́тор и́мпульсного напряже́ния — high-voltage impulse generator

генера́тор и́мпульсного то́ка — surge current generator

и́мпульсный генера́тор (источник колебаний, генерирующий под воздействием собственных или внешних импульсов) — pulse oscillator

и́мпульсный, хрони́рованный генера́тор — timed pulse oscillator

генера́тор и́мпульсов (любой источник управляемых последовательностей импульсов, в том числе механический, электромеханический, электронный и т. п.) — pulse generator, pulser

генера́тор и́мпульсов за́данной фо́рмы — pulse waveform generator

генера́тор и́мпульсов, маломо́щный — low-level pulser

генера́тор и́мпульсов, ма́тричный — matrix-type pulse generator

генера́тор и́мпульсов, мо́щный — power pulser

генера́тор и́мпульсов, электро́нный — electronic pulse generator

генера́тор инду́кторного вы́зова — subharmonic generator, ringing converter

инду́кторный генера́тор — inductor generator

интегра́льный генера́тор — integrated(-circuit) oscillator

интерполяцио́нный генера́тор — interpolation oscillator

искрово́й генера́тор ( напр. для индукционного нагрева) — spark-gap converter (e. g., for induction heating)

генера́тор ка́дровой развё́ртки — vertical-scanning [frame-scan, frame-sweep, vertical sweep] generator [circuit]

калибро́вочный генера́тор — calibration oscillator

камерто́нный генера́тор — tuning-fork oscillator

генера́тор кача́ющейся частоты́ [ГКЧ] — sweep-frequency [swept-frequency] generator; ( без конкретизации типа) swept-signal source

генера́тор кача́ющейся частоты́ осуществля́ет кача́ние ( в пределах нужного диапазона) — the swept-frequency source sweeps (across the frequency range of interest)

квадрату́рный генера́тор — quadrature oscillator

ква́нтовый генера́тор — quantum-mechanical oscillator

ква́нтовый генера́тор ИК-диапазо́на — infrared [IR] laser, iraser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор [ОКГ] — laser (см. тж. лазер)

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор бегу́щей волны́ — travelling wave laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий жи́дкостный генера́тор — liquid laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий и́мпульсный генера́тор — pulse(d) laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий инжекцио́нный генера́тор — injection laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий ио́нный генера́тор — ion(ic) (gas) laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий комбинацио́нный генера́тор — Raman laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий молекуля́рный генера́тор — molecular laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий монои́мпульсный генера́тор — giant-pulse laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор на пигме́нтах — dye laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор на руби́не — ruby laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор на стекле́ с неоди́мом — Nd glass laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий полупроводнико́вый генера́тор — semiconduction laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий регенерати́вный генера́тор — cavity laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор с модуля́цией добро́тности — Q-switched laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор с непреры́вным режи́мом генера́ции — CW laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий генера́тор с электро́нной нака́чкой — electron-beam-pumped laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий твердоте́льный генера́тор — solid-state laser

ква́нтовый, опти́ческий хими́ческий генера́тор — chemical laser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ(-диапазо́на) — maser (см. тж. мазер)

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, акусти́ческий — acoustic maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, га́зовый — gas maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, и́мпульсный — pulse(d) maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ не аммиа́ке — ammonia gas maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ на осно́ве циклотро́нного резона́нса — cyclotron resonance [electron cyclotron] maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ на порошке́ — powder maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ на пучке́ моле́кул — molecular-beam maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ на руби́не — ruby maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, полупроводнико́вый — semiconductor maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, регенерати́вный — cavity maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, регенерати́вный отража́тельный — reflection-type cavity maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, регенерати́вный

проходно́й генера́тор — transmission-type cavity maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, полупроводнико́вый — semiconductor maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ с интерферо́метром Фабри́—Перо́ — Fabry-Perot maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ с опти́ческой нака́чкой — optically pumped maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, твердоте́льный — solid-state maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор СВЧ, фоно́нный — phonon maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор с нака́чкой ла́зером — laser pumped maser

ква́нтовый генера́тор субмиллиметро́вого диапазо́на — submillimeter (wave) maser, smaser

ква́рцевый генера́тор — crystal oscillator

клистро́нный генера́тор

1. (источник сигнала, подсоединён прямо к волноводу) klystron generator

2. (источник высокочастотных колебаний, напр. гетеродин) klystron oscillator

когере́нтный генера́тор — coherent oscillator, Coho

генера́тор (колеба́ний) с вне́шним возбужде́нием — radio-frequency [r.f.] power amplifier

кольцево́й генера́тор — ring oscillator

генера́тор компенса́ции парази́тных сигна́лов передаю́щей тру́бки тлв. — shading generator

генера́тор компенса́ции тё́много пятна́ тлв. — shading(-correction) generator

генера́тор коро́тких и́мпульсов — narrow-pulse generator

ла́мповый генера́тор — брит. valve oscillator; амер. vacuum-tube oscillator

генера́тор лине́йно-возраста́ющего напряже́ния ( [m2]то́ка) — saw-tooth (voltage, current) generator

генера́тор лине́йно-па́дающего напряже́ния ( [m2]то́ка) — phantastron

магнетро́нный генера́тор — magnetron oscillator

магнитогидродинами́ческий генера́тор — magnetohydrodynamic [MHD] generator, magneto-fluid-dynamic [MFD] generator

магнитогидродинами́ческий генера́тор на неравнове́сной пла́зме — non-equilibrium magnetohydrodynamic generator

магнитострикцио́нный генера́тор — magnetostriction oscillator

магнитоэлектри́ческий генера́тор — permanent-magnet generator

генера́тор масшта́бных ме́ток да́льности — calibration mark(er) generator

генера́тор ме́ток вре́мени — time-mark generator

генера́тор ме́ток да́льности — range-mark(er) generator

многото́ковый генера́тор — multiple-current generator

генера́тор, модели́рующий диагра́мму напра́вленности — beam-pattern generator

молекуля́рный генера́тор — molecular-beam maser

надтона́льный генера́тор (в синтезаторах частоты, возбудителях дискретного спектра и т. п.) — interpolation oscillator

генера́тор нака́чки — pump oscillator; ( параметрического усилителя) pump

генера́тор на кре́мниевом дио́де, транзи́сторах, R и C и т. п. — silicon-diode, transistor, RC-, etc. oscillator

генера́тор на то́пливных элеме́нтах — fuel-cell generator

генера́тор незатуха́ющих колеба́ний — continuous-wave [CW] oscillator

генера́тор нейтро́нов — neutron generator

генера́тор несу́щей частоты́ — ( в ВЧ телефонии) carrier oscillator; ( в системах на боковых частотах) carrier generator

неявнопо́люсный генера́тор — implicit-pole generator

генера́тор ни́зкой частоты́ — audio(-frequency) oscillator; audio signal generator

генера́тор одино́чных и́мпульсов — single-pulse generator

опо́рный генера́тор ( в синтезаторах частоты и возбудителях дискретного спектра) — frequency standard (assembly)

опо́рный генера́тор явля́ется исто́чником высокостаби́льной опо́рной частоты́, на осно́ве кото́рой получа́ются все остальны́е часто́ты, испо́льзуемые в радиоста́нции — the frequency standard produces an accurate, stable reference frequency upon which all frequencies used in the radio set are based

генера́тор па́ра — steam generator

параметри́ческий генера́тор — parametric oscillator

генера́тор па́чек и́мпульсов — pulse-burst [series] generator

педа́льный генера́тор — foot-operated [pedal] generator

генера́тор пе́ны горн. — froth generator

генера́тор пере́днего полустро́ба — early-gate generator

генера́тор переме́нного то́ка — alternating current [a.c.] generator, alternator

генера́тор переме́нного то́ка, многочасто́тный — multifrequency alternator

генера́тор пилообра́зного напряже́ния ( [m2]то́ка) — saw-tooth voltage (current) generator

генера́тор пла́вного диапазо́на — variable frequency oscillator, VFO

пла́зменный генера́тор — plasma oscillator

генера́тор пла́змы, дугово́й — arc plasma generator

генера́тор повы́шенной частоты́ — rotary frequency changer, rotary changer converter

генера́тор погружно́го исполне́ния — submerged [submersible] generator

погружно́й генера́тор — submerged [submersible] generator

генера́тор постоя́нного то́ка — direct-current [d.c.] generator

генера́тор по схе́ме ё́мкостной трёхто́чки — Colpitts oscillator

генера́тор по схе́ме индукти́вной трёхто́чки — Hartley oscillator

генера́тор по схе́ме моста́ Ви́на — Wien-bridge oscillator

генера́тор по схе́ме Ше́мбеля — electron-coupled oscillator, ECO

генера́тор преры́вистого де́йствия — chopping oscillator

генера́тор прямоуго́льных и́мпульсов — square-wave generator

генера́тор псевдослуча́йной после́довательности — PR sequence generator

генера́тор пусковы́х и́мпульсов — trigger(-pulse) generator

генера́тор равновероя́тных цифр — equiprobable number generator

генера́тор развё́ртки — брит. time-base (generator), time-base circuit; амер. sweep generator

генера́тор развё́ртки да́льности — range-sweep generator

реакти́вный генера́тор — reluctance generator

резе́рвный генера́тор — stand-by generator

релаксацио́нный генера́тор — relaxation oscillator

генера́тор релаксацио́нных колеба́ний — relaxation oscillator

реле́йный генера́тор — relay pulse generator

самовозбужда́ющийся генера́тор — self-excited generator

самохрони́рующийся генера́тор — self-pulsed oscillator

генера́тор сантиметро́вого диапазо́на — SHF oscillator

генера́тор с вну́тренней самовентиля́цией — built-in-fan-cooled generator

генера́тор с водоро́дным охлажде́нием — hydrogen-cooled generator

генера́тор СВЧ ( не путать с генера́тором сантиметро́вого диапазо́на) — microwave oscillator (not to be confused with SHF oscillator)

сельси́нный генера́тор — synchro generator

генера́тор се́тки часто́т — (frequency) spectrum generator

генера́тор се́тки часто́т с ша́гом 10 кГц — a 10 kHz spectrum generator

генера́тор сигна́лов — signal generator

генера́тор сигна́лов, часто́тно-модули́рованный — FM signal generator

генера́тор си́мволов — symbol generator

генера́тор синусоида́льных колеба́ний ( не путать с генера́тором гармо́ник) — harmonic [sinusoidal] oscillator (not to be confused with harmonic generator)

генера́тор синхрои́мпульсов тлв. — synchronizing(-signal) [sync] generator

синхро́нный генера́тор

1. эл. synchronous generator

2. радио, тлв. locked oscillator

генера́тор с и́скровым возбужде́нием — spark-excited oscillator

генера́тор с ква́рцевой стабилиза́цией — crystal-controlled oscillator

генера́тор с колеба́тельным ко́нтуром в цепи́ ано́да — брит. tuned-anode oscillator; амер. tuned-plate oscillator

генера́тор с колеба́тельным ко́нтуром в цепи́ ано́да и се́тки — брит. tuned-anode, tuned-grid [TATG] oscillator; амер. tuned-grid, tuned-plate [TGTP] oscillator

генера́тор с колеба́тельным ко́нтуром в цепи́ се́тки — tuned-grid oscillator

генера́тор случа́йных сигна́лов ( в информационных системах) — random-signal generator

генера́тор случа́йных собы́тий — random event generator, randomizer

генера́тор случа́йных чи́сел мат. — random number generator, randomizer

генера́тор с нару́жной самовентиля́цией — built-in blower-cooled generator

генера́тор с незави́симым возбужде́нием

1. эл. separately excited generator

2. радио r.f. power amplifier

генера́тор с незави́симым охлажде́нием — separate fan-cooled generator

генера́тор с непо́лным включе́нием колеба́тельного ко́нтура — tapped-down oscillator

генера́тор с нея́вно вы́раженными полюса́ми — non-salient pole generator

генера́тор со́бственных нужд (станции, подстанции и т. п.) — house generator

генера́тор со скоростно́й модуля́цией — velocity-modulated oscillator

генера́тор со сме́шанным возбужде́нием — compound generator

генера́тор с отрица́тельной крутизно́й — negative-transconductance oscillator

генера́тор с отрица́тельным сопротивле́нием — negative-resistance oscillator

генера́тор с паралле́льным возбужде́нием — shunt(-wound) generator

генера́тор с попере́чным по́лем — cross-field [heteropolar] generator

генера́тор с после́довательным возбужде́нием — series(-wound) generator

генера́тор с посторо́нним возбужде́нием — r.f. power amplifier

генера́тор с постоя́нными магни́тами — permanent magnet generator

генера́тор с продо́льным по́лем — homopolar generator

генера́тор с протяжё́нным взаимоде́йствием — extended interaction oscillator

генера́тор срыва́ющей частоты́ — quench(ing) oscillator

генера́тор с самовозбужде́нием ( автогенератор) — self-excited [feedback] oscillator

генера́тор, стабилизи́рованный ква́рцем — crystal-controlled oscillator

генера́тор, стабилизи́рованный ли́нией — line-controlled oscillator

генера́тор станда́ртных сигна́лов — standard-signal generator

генера́тор с тормозя́щим по́лем — retarding-field [positive-grid] oscillator

стоя́ночный генера́тор мор. — harbour generator

генера́тор строб-и́мпульсов — gate generator

генера́тор стро́чной развё́ртки — horizontal-scanning [line-scan, line-sweep, horizontal-sweep] generator [circuit]

стру́йный генера́тор — fluid oscillator

генера́тор ступе́нчатой фу́нкции — step-function generator

генера́тор субгармо́ник — subharmonic generator

генера́тор с фа́зовым сдви́гом — phase-shift oscillator

генера́тор с часто́тной модуля́цией — frequency-modulated oscillator

генера́тор с электро́нной перестро́йкой частоты́ — voltage-tuned oscillator

генера́тор с я́вно вы́раженными по́люсами — salient-pole generator

генера́тор та́ктовых и́мпульсов — clock pulse-generator

тахометри́ческий генера́тор — tacho(meter-)generator

твердоте́льный генера́тор — solid-state oscillator

теплово́й генера́тор — heat generator

термоаэрозо́льный генера́тор — thermal aerosol generator

термоэлектри́ческий генера́тор — thermoelectric generator

термоэлектри́ческий, изото́пный генера́тор — isotopic thermoelectric generator

термоэлектро́нный генера́тор — thermionic generator, thermionic converter

тиратро́нный генера́тор — thyratron oscillator

генера́тор тона́льного вы́зова — ( без конкретизации частоты) v.f. [voice-frequency] ringer; ( c точным указанием частоты) 2100-Hz ringer; 500-Hz ringer

транзитро́нный генера́тор — transitron oscillator

трёхто́чечный генера́тор ( обобщённое название) — impedance voltage divider oscillator

трёхто́чечный генера́тор с ё́мкостной обра́тной свя́зью — Colpitts oscillator

трёхто́чечный генера́тор с индукти́вной обра́тной свя́зью — Hartley oscillator

трёхфа́зный генера́тор — three-phase generator

генера́тор уда́рного возбужде́ния — shock-excited oscillator

генера́тор уда́рных волн ав. — shock-wave generator

генера́тор у́зких строб-и́мпульсов — narrow gate [strobe-pulse] generator

у́ксусный генера́тор — vinegar generator

ультразвуково́й генера́тор — ultrasonic generator

ультразвуково́й генера́тор для сня́тия на́кипи — ultrasonic descaler

униполя́рный генера́тор — homopolar [unipolar] generator

генера́тор, управля́емый напряже́нием — voltage-controlled oscillator, VCO

фотоэлектри́ческий генера́тор — photoelectric generator

генера́тор Хо́лла — Hall generator

генера́тор хрони́рующий генера́тор — timing oscillator

генера́тор чи́сел — number generator

генера́тор ЧМ ( для измерений методом качающейся частоты) — sweep generator, swept-signal source

генера́тор широ́ких строб-и́мпульсов — wide gate [strob-pulse] generator

генера́тор шу́ма — noise generator

эквивале́нтный генера́тор напряже́ния — constant-voltage generator (Thevenin equivalent)

эквивале́нтный генера́тор то́ка — constant-current generator (Norton equivalent)

электростати́ческий генера́тор — electrostatic generator

электростати́ческий, ле́нточный генера́тор — belt-type electrostatic generator

электростати́ческий, ро́торный генера́тор — rotary electrostatic generator

электрофо́рный генера́тор — influence machine

этало́нный генера́тор — reference [standard] oscillator

явнопо́люсный генера́тор — explicit-pole generator

* * *

* * *

замедля́ть реле́ — slug a relay

реле́ остаё́тся в исхо́дном положе́нии — the relay remains unoperated

реле́ отпуска́ет — the relay drops out [releases, resets]

реле́ отпуска́ет с замедле́нием — the relay is slow to reset [to drop out]

поста́вить реле́ на блокиро́вку — ( механически) latch a relay; ( немеханическим способом) lock (up) a relay

разблоки́ровать [снять с блокиро́вки] реле́ — unlatch [release] a relay

реле́ реаги́рует на … — the relay responds to … (не путать с реле́ сраба́тывает)

реле́ самоблоки́руется — the relay locks itself on [in] the energized [operated] position

реле́ сраба́тывает — the relay picks up [operates]

реле́ сраба́тывает с замедле́нием — the relay is slow to operate

реле́ стано́вится на самоблокиро́вку — the relay locks itself on [in] the energized [operated] position, a relay holds itself energized

реле́ акти́вного сопротивле́ния — resistance relay

реле́ акти́вной мо́щности — active-power relay

реле́ бди́тельности ж.-д. — acknowledging relay

реле́ без замедле́ния — instantaneous relay

безъя́корное реле́ ( геркон) — (hermetically) sealed reed relay

бесконта́ктное реле́ — static relay; ( на твердотельных элементах) solid state relay

реле́ в закры́том исполне́нии — enclosed relay

реле́ в откры́том исполне́нии — open relay

реле́ в реле́йной защи́те, пусково́е — locking relay

реле́ вре́мени — time(-delay) relay, timer

вызывно́е реле́ ( телефонной системы ЦБ) — line relay

га́зовое реле́ ( масляного трансформатора) — gas [Buchholtz] relay

реле́ гаше́ния по́ля — field-decelerating relay

гла́вное реле́ — master relay

двухпозицио́нное реле́ — two-step relay

двухъя́корное реле́ — double armature relay

зави́симо-заме́дленное реле́ — inverse time-lag relay

реле́ заде́ржки — delay relay

реле́ за́нятости тлф. — busy relay

защи́тное реле́ — protective relay

избира́тельное реле́ — discriminating relay

измери́тельное реле́ — instrument relay

индукцио́нное реле́ — induction relay

исполни́тельное реле́ — final-control [actuator] relay

кло́пферное реле́ телегр. — sounder relay

конта́ктное реле́ — contact relay

реле́ контро́ля — supervisory relay

коромы́словое реле́ — beam relay

реле́ ко́свенного де́йствия — indirect action relay

логи́ческое реле́ — logic relay

магни́тное реле́ — magnetic relay

магнитоэлектри́ческое реле́ — magneto-electric relay

максима́льное реле́ — overvoltage [overcurrent] relay

максима́льно-минима́льное реле́ — over-and-under relay

манометри́ческое реле́ — pressure relay

реле́ мгнове́нного де́йствия — instantaneous relay

минима́льное реле́ — undervoltage [undercurrent] relay

реле́ мо́щности — power relay

реле́ направле́ния мо́щности — power direction relay

реле́ напряже́ния — voltage relay

неполяризо́ванное реле́ — neutral [non-polarized] relay

реле́ номерника́ — annunciator relay

реле́ нулево́й после́довательности фаз — zero-phase-sequence relay

реле́ обра́тного то́ка — reverse current relay

реле́ обры́ва по́ля — field-failure relay

реле́ обры́ва фа́зы — phase failure relay

общевызывно́е реле́ ( телефонной системы) — pilot relay

реле́ отноше́ния величи́н — quotient relay

реле́ переключе́ния пита́ния — power-transfer relay

реле́ по́лного сопротивле́ния — impedance relay

полупроводнико́вое реле́ — semiconductor relay

поляризо́ванное реле́ — polarized relay

поляризо́ванное, нейтра́льно отрегули́рованное реле́ — unbiased [centre-adjusted] polarized relay

поляризо́ванное реле́ с преоблада́нием — biased relay

реле́ после́довательности опера́ций — sequence relay

реле́ после́довательности фаз — phase sequence relay

реле́ произведе́ния величи́н — product relay

реле́ произво́дной — derived relay

промежу́точное реле́ — pilot relay

путево́е реле́ — track relay

реле́ реакти́вного сопротивле́ния — reactance relay

реле́ реакти́вной мо́щности — reactive power relay

самоблоки́рующееся реле́ — ( с механической блокировкой) latching relay; ( с немеханической блокировкой) lock up relay

реле́ с вы́держкой вре́мени — time-delay relay

реле́ с зави́симой вы́держкой вре́мени — dependent time-delay relay

реле́ с замедле́нием на отпуска́ние — slow-release relay

реле́ с замедле́нием на сраба́тывание — slow-operate relay

реле́ с защё́лкой — latching relay

силово́е реле́ — power relay

реле́ симметри́чных составля́ющих — phase-sequence relay

реле́ с незави́симой вы́держкой вре́мени — independent time-lag relay

реле́ с обра́тно зави́симой вы́держкой вре́мени — inverse time-lag relay

реле́ с ограни́ченно зави́симой вы́держкой вре́мени — inverse time-lag relay with definite minimum

реле́ сопротивле́ния — resistance relay

реле́ сравне́ния то́ка — current-balance relay

реле́ с ручны́м возвра́том — hand reset [mechanically reset] relay

реле́ с самоблокиро́вкой — ( с механической блокировкой) latching relay; ( с немеханической блокировкой) lock-up relay

реле́ с самовозвра́том — self-reset [automatically reset] relay

реле́ с торможе́нием — biased relay

сумми́рующее-вычита́ющее реле́ — add-subtract relay

теплово́е реле́ — thermal relay

термоста́тное реле́ — thermostat relay

реле́ то́ка — current relay

реле́ трево́жной сигнализа́ции — alarm relay

уде́рживающее реле́ тлф. — holding relay

указа́тельное реле́ — indicating relay

часто́тное реле́ — frequency relay

ша́говое реле́ — stepping relay

электри́ческое реле́ — electrical relay

электромагни́тное реле́ — electromagnetic relay

электромехани́ческое реле́ — electromechanical relay

электростати́ческое реле́ — electrostatic relay

язычко́вое реле́ — reed relay

* * *

возбужда́ть [пита́ть] элеме́нты анте́нны синфа́зно — excite [feed] aerial elements in phase

выставля́ть анте́нну ( радиолокатора на столько-то) по а́зимуту, да́льности или углу́ ме́ста — set an aerial at [to] an azimuth, range or elevation of …

выставля́ть анте́нну ( радиолокатора) [m2]по а́зимуту, да́льности или углу́ ме́ста ( без указания конкретного значения) — set an aerial in azimuth, range or elevation

замыка́ть анте́нну на волново́е сопротивле́ние — terminate an aerial in its characteristic impedance

анте́нна излуча́ет высокочасто́тную эне́ргию — the aerial radiates r. f. energy

изоли́ровать ли́нзовую анте́нну от возде́йствия вне́шней среды́ — seal the lens against atmospheric conditions

наводи́ть анте́нну на объе́кт — set an aerial to bear on the target

натя́гивать [устана́вливать] анте́нну на (подру́чных) опо́рах — rig an aerial on (improvised) supports

анте́нна облада́ет хоро́шей диапазо́нностью — an aerial has a flat gain over [across] the frequency range

ориенти́ровать анте́нну на исто́чник сигна́ла — beam an aerial onto the signal

подве́шивать анте́нну на столба́х — support an aerial on poles

поднима́ть анте́нну над землё́й — elevate an aerial

анте́нна принима́ет излуче́ние, сигна́л или волну́ — the aerial picks up radiation, a signal or wave

анте́нна рабо́тает в режи́ме удлине́ния — the aerial is inductance-loaded

анте́нна рабо́тает в режи́ме укоро́чения — the aerial is capacitance-loaded

рабо́тать на анте́нну — operate on [into] an aerial

согласо́вывать анте́нну с фи́дером — match (the impedance of) an aerial to a transmission line [feeder]

удлиня́ть анте́нну — load an aerial inductively

укора́чивать анте́нну — load an aerial capacitively

анте́нна ула́вливает сигна́л — the aerial picks [catches] the signal

анте́нна формиру́ет диагра́мму напра́вленности — the aerial generates a beam

анте́нна автомати́ческого радиоко́мпаса — ADF [automatic direction finder] aerial

анте́нна автомати́ческого радиоко́мпаса, ненапра́вленная — ADF sense aerial

азимута́льная анте́нна — azimuth aerial

антифе́динговая анте́нна — anti-fading aerial

апериоди́ческая анте́нна — aperiodic aerial

анте́нна Бе́вереджа — Beverage aerial

анте́нна бегу́щей волны́ — travelling-wave aerial

бикони́ческая анте́нна — biconical aerial

бортова́я анте́нна — vehicle-borne aerial

анте́нна ве́рхнего пита́ния — top-fed aerial

вибра́торная анте́нна — dipole aerial

волново́дно-щелева́я анте́нна — slotted-guide aerial

всенапра́вленная анте́нна — omnidirectional aerial

встро́енная анте́нна — built-in aerial

выпускна́я анте́нна ( самолётная) — trailing aerial

выпуска́ть выпускну́ю анте́нну — reel in an aerial

глисса́дная анте́нна — glide-path aerial

Г-обра́зная анте́нна — inverted L aerial

гофриро́ванная анте́нна — corrugated-surface aerial

грибообра́зная анте́нна — mushroom aerial

анте́нна да́льней косми́ческой свя́зи — deep-space (communications) aerial

анте́нна ДВ [дли́нных волн] — LF [low-frequency] aerial

двунапра́вленная анте́нна — bidirectional [bilateral] aerial

двуска́тная анте́нна — inverted V aerial

двухзерка́льная анте́нна — Cassegrainian aerial

двухпроводна́я анте́нна — two-wire [twin-wire] aerial

диапазо́нная анте́нна — wide-band untuned aerial

дире́кторная анте́нна — Yagi aerial

дискоко́нусная анте́нна — discone (aerial)

диэлектри́ческая (стержнева́я) анте́нна — dielectric(-rod) aerial

зерка́льная анте́нна — reflector(-type) aerial

зо́нтичная анте́нна — umbrella(-type) aerial

измери́тельная анте́нна — pick-up antenna

изотро́пная анте́нна — isotropic aerial

анте́нна Кассегре́на — Cassegrainian aerial

кача́ющаяся анте́нна — rocking horse [nodding] aerial

квадра́нтная анте́нна — quadrant aerial

коллекти́вная анте́нна — community [master] aerial

коллинеа́рная анте́нна — collinear array

контро́льная анте́нна — monitoring aerial

ко́нусная анте́нна — conical aerial

коро́бчатая анте́нна — box aerial

анте́нна КВ [коро́тких волн] — HF [high-frequency] aerial

крестообра́зная анте́нна — cross(ed) aerial

кругова́я анте́нна — circular [ring] aerial

анте́нна курсово́го приё́мника ( системы посадки) — localizer (receiving) aerial

ле́нточная анте́нна — ribbon aerial

лине́йная анте́нна — uniform linear array

ли́нзовая анте́нна — lens (aerial)

логарифми́ческая анте́нна — log-periodic [LP] antenna

логопериоди́ческая анте́нна — log-periodic [LP] antenna

лучева́я анте́нна — beam aerial

магни́тная анте́нна — magnetic aerial

мни́мая анте́нна ( зеркальное изображение) — image aerial

многовибра́торная анте́нна — dipole array

многопроводна́я анте́нна — multiple-horn aerial

многору́порная анте́нна — multiple-horn aerial

многоря́дная анте́нна — mattress array

многоэлеме́нтная анте́нна — multielement aerial

многоя́русная анте́нна — stacked dipole aerial

монои́мпульсная анте́нна — monopulse aerial

надкузовна́я анте́нна — top [roof] aerial

назе́мная анте́нна — ground aerial

напра́вленная анте́нна — directional [directive] aerial

настро́енная анте́нна — tuned aerial

ненапра́вленная анте́нна — nondirectional [omnidirectional] aerial

анте́нна ни́жнего пита́ния — base-driven [base-fed] aerial

анте́нна обнаруже́ния — search antenna

анте́нна обратноосево́го излуче́ния — back-fire antenna

обтека́емая анте́нна — stream-line(d) aerial

однонапра́вленная анте́нна — unidirectional [unilateral] aerial

остронапра́вленная анте́нна — pencil-beam [narrow-beam] aerial

откры́тая анте́нна — open aerial

параболи́ческая анте́нна — parabolic [reflector] aerial

параболо́идная анте́нна — paraboloid(-reflector) aerial

параболо́идная анте́нна с дипо́льным облуча́телем — dipole-feed paraboloid

параболо́идная анте́нна с ру́порным облуча́телем — horn-fed paraboloid

пеленгацио́нная анте́нна — direction-finding [DF] aerial

передаю́щая анте́нна — transmitting [sending] aerial

пневмати́ческая анте́нна — air-inflated aerial

анте́нна пове́рхностных волн — surface-wave aerial

поворо́тная анте́нна — steerable aerial

подво́дная анте́нна — underwater [submarine] aerial

подзе́мная анте́нна — buried [underground, subsurface] aerial

подку́зовная анте́нна — undercar [chassis] aerial

по́днятая анте́нна — elevated aerial

поиско́вая анте́нна — search antenna

полистиро́ловая анте́нна — polyrod [polystyrene rod] aerial

полуво́лновая анте́нна — halt-wave aerial

помехозащищё́нная анте́нна — anti-interference aerial

анте́нна после́довательного пита́ния — series-fed aerial

приводна́я анте́нна — homing aerial

приё́мная анте́нна — receiving aerial

про́волочная анте́нна — wire aerial

анте́нна продо́льного излуче́ния — end-fire aerial

простра́нственно-разнесё́нная анте́нна — spaced [diversity] aerial

противопоме́ховая анте́нна — anti-interference aerial

про́фильно-лучева́я анте́нна — shaped-beam aerial

про́фильно-отража́тельная анте́нна — shaped-reflector aerial

радиолокацио́нная анте́нна — radar aerial

радиотелеметри́ческая анте́нна — radiotelemetering [radiotelemetry] aerial

ра́мочная анте́нна — loop aerial

ребри́стая стержнева́я анте́нна — cigar aerial

резона́нсная анте́нна — resonant aerial

ромби́ческая анте́нна — rhombic aerial

ру́порная анте́нна — horn aerial

ру́порно-зерка́льная анте́нна — horn-reflector aerial

ру́порно-ли́нзовая анте́нна — horn-lens aerial

самолё́тная анте́нна — aircraft(-type) aerial

самофази́рующая анте́нна — self-phasing aerial

самофокуси́рующая анте́нна — self-focusing aerial

анте́нна СВ [сре́дних волн] — MF [medium-frequency] aerial

анте́нна с ве́ерной диагра́ммой напра́вленности — beam aerial

сверхнапра́вленная анте́нна — superdirective [supergain] aerial

анте́нна СВЧ-диапазо́на — microwave aerial

связна́я анте́нна — communications aerial

анте́нна СДВ [сверхдли́нных волн] — VLF [very-low-frequency] aerial

се́тчатая анте́нна — grid aerial

анте́нна с иго́льчатой диагра́ммой напра́вленности — pencil-beam aerial

симметри́чная анте́нна — balanced aerial

синфа́зная анте́нна — broadside array

синфа́зная, многовибра́торная анте́нна — pine-tree array

анте́нна с квадрати́чно-косе́кансной диагра́ммой напра́вленности — cosecant-squared (beam) aerial

скла́дывающаяся анте́нна — folding-type [collapsible] aerial

анте́нна слеже́ния — tracking aerial

анте́нна сопровожде́ния — tracking aerial

спа́ренная анте́нна — twin aerial

анте́нна с переключе́нием лепестко́в — lobe-switching aerial

анте́нна с переключе́нием равносигна́льной зо́ны — lobing aerial

спира́льная анте́нна — helical aerial

анте́нна с пло́ским отража́телем — plane-reflector aerial

анте́нна с прижа́тым излуче́нием — low-angle aerial

анте́нна с регули́руемым накло́ном — tiltable aerial

анте́нна с синтези́рованным раскры́вом — synthetic(-aperture) aerial

стержнева́я анте́нна — rod aerial

анте́нна стоя́чей волны́ — standing-wave aerial

анте́нна с уголко́вым отража́телем — corner-reflector aerial

сфери́ческая анте́нна — spherical aerial

сфероида́льная анте́нна — spheroidal aerial

анте́нна с электро́нным скани́рованием — electronically scanned aerial

таре́лочная анте́нна — dish-shaped aerial

телевизио́нная анте́нна — television aerial

телескопи́ческая анте́нна — telescopic aerial

анте́нна ти́па «волново́й кана́л» — Yagi aerial

Т-обра́зная анте́нна — T(-shaped) aerial

турнике́тная анте́нна — turnstile aerial

угломе́стная анте́нна — elevation aerial

уголко́вая анте́нна — corner aerial

узкополо́сная анте́нна — narrow-banded aerial

анте́нна УКВ [ультракоро́тких волн] — VHF-UHF aerial

уто́пленная анте́нна — flush-mounted aerial

фази́рованная анте́нна — phase(-locked) aerial

ферри́товая анте́нна — ferrite-rod aerial

фи́дерная анте́нна — TL aerial

хвостова́я анте́нна — tail aerial

цилиндри́ческая, косе́кансная анте́нна — cylindrical cosecant aerial

цилиндри́ческая, широкополо́сная анте́нна — squirrel (cage) aerial

анте́нна часто́тного скани́рования — frequency-scanned aerial

часто́тно-незави́симая анте́нна — frequency-independent antenna

четвертьво́лновая анте́нна — quarter-wave aerial

широкополо́сная анте́нна — broadband aerial

штырева́я анте́нна — rod aerial

штырева́я, ги́бкая анте́нна — whip aerial

анте́нна шунтово́го пита́ния — shunt-fed aerial

щелева́я анте́нна — slot aerial

щелева́я, кольцева́я анте́нна — annular slot aerial

экрани́рованная анте́нна — screened aerial

эллипти́ческая анте́нна — elliptical aerial

этало́нная анте́нна — standard aerial

* * *

* * *

1. (графическое изображение, чертёж) diagram

2. ( совокупность элементов и цепей связи) circuit; (разновидность какой-л. схемы) circuit design

возбужда́ть схе́му — drive a circuit

запуска́ть схе́му — trigger a circuit

подгота́вливать схе́му — arm a circuit, set up a circuit in readiness for operation

… со́бран по схе́ме ё́мкостной трёхто́чки … — connected in the Hartley oscillator circuit

составля́ть схе́му — draw (up) a circuit

существу́ет не́сколько схем супергетероди́нного приё́мника — superhets come in several circuit designs

3. (изображение, образ действия последовательность событий) scheme, plan

автоди́нная схе́ма — autodyne circuit

схе́ма автомати́ческой подстро́йки частоты́ [АПЧ] — automatic frequency control [AFC] circuit

анало́говая схе́ма — analog circuit

схе́ма ано́дного повтори́теля — see-saw circuit

схе́ма антисовпаде́ний — anticoincidence circuit

бала́нсная схе́ма — balanced circuit

схе́ма Берну́лли ( в теории вероятностей) — Bernoulli trials

ве́нтильная схе́ма — gate (circuit)

схе́ма вентиля́ции — ventilation (system), ventilation plan

схе́ма вентиля́ции, за́мкнутая — closed-circuit ventilation (system)

схе́ма вентиля́ции, осева́я — axial ventilation (system)

схе́ма вентиля́ции, протяжна́я — open-circuit ventilation (system)

схе́ма вентиля́ции, радиа́льная — radial ventilation (system)

схе́ма включа́ющее ИЛИ — inclusive OR circuit

схе́ма вычисле́ния — computational scheme, pattern of calculation

схе́ма вычита́ния — subtract(ion) circuit

схе́ма гаше́ния луча́ — blanking circuit

герметизи́рованная схе́ма — potted circuit

гибри́дная схе́ма — hybrid circuit

двухта́ктная схе́ма — push-pull circuit

двухта́ктная схе́ма с о́бщим като́дным сопротивле́нием — long-tailed pair

схе́ма деле́ния — dividing circuit

схе́ма деле́ния на два — divide-by-two circuit, binary scaler

дифференци́рующая схе́ма — differentiating circuit

схе́ма заде́ржки — delay circuit

схе́ма замеще́ния — equivalent circuit

заостря́ющая схе́ма — peaking circuit

запомина́ющая схе́ма — memory [storage] circuit

схе́ма запре́та ( логический элемент) — NOT-AND [NAND] circuit, NOT-AND [NAND] gate, inhibitor circuit, inhibit gate

схе́ма за́пуска — trigger circuit

схе́ма засве́та развё́ртки рлк. — intensifier gate circuit

схе́ма И — AND circuit, AND gate

схе́ма И-И — AND-to-AND circuit

схе́ма И-ИЛИ — AND-to-OR circuit

схе́ма ИЛИ — OR circuit, OR gate

схе́ма ИЛИ-И — OR-to-AND circuit

схе́ма ИЛИ-ИЛИ — OR-to-OR circuit

и́мпульсная схе́ма — pulse circuit

схе́ма И-НЕТ — NOT-AND [NAND] circuit, NOT-AND [NAND] gate

интегра́льная схе́ма — integrated circuit

помеща́ть интегра́льную схе́му в ко́рпус — encase an integrated circuit

интегра́льная, больша́я схе́ма [БИС] — large-scale integrated [LSI] circuit

интегра́льная, гибри́дная схе́ма — hybrid integrated circuit, hybrid IC, HIC

интегра́льная, моноли́тная схе́ма — monolithic integrated circuit, MIC

интегра́льная, осаждё́нная схе́ма — deposited integrated circuit

интегра́льная, плана́рная эпитаксиа́льная схе́ма — planex integrated circuit

интегра́льная, полупроводнико́вая схе́ма — semiconductor integrated circuit

интегра́льная схе́ма СВЧ диапазо́на — microwave integrated circuit

интегра́льная схе́ма с инжекцио́нным возбужде́нием — integrated-injection-logic [I² L] circuit

интегра́льная, толстоплё́ночная схе́ма — thick-film integrated circuit

интегри́рующая схе́ма — integrating circuit, integrating network

схе́ма исключа́ющее ИЛИ — exclusive OR circuit, exclusive or [nonequivalent] element

каско́дная схе́ма — cascode circuit

квадрату́рная схе́ма — quadrature network

кинемати́ческая схе́ма — mechanical diagram

кольцева́я схе́ма — ring circuit

коммутацио́нная схе́ма — diagram of connections; wiring diagram

компоно́вочная схе́ма — lay-out diagram

схе́ма корре́кции часто́тной характери́стики — compensating network

схе́ма корре́кции часто́тной характери́стики, проста́я — series frequency compensating network

схе́ма корре́кции часто́тной характери́стики, сло́жная — shunt frequency compensating network

криотро́нная схе́ма — cryotron circuit

логи́ческая схе́ма — ( материальный объект) logic(al) (circuit); ( совокупность логических элементов) logic system

стро́ить логи́ческую схе́му на ба́зе реле́ — mechanize the logic system with relays

логи́ческая схе́ма без па́мяти — combinational logic network

логи́ческая, дио́дная схе́ма — diode logic circuit

логи́ческая, дио́дно-транзи́сторная схе́ма — diode-transistor logic, DTL

логи́ческая, микроминиатю́рная схе́ма — micrologic circuit

логи́ческая схе́ма на магни́тных серде́чниках — core logic

логи́ческая схе́ма на параметро́нах — parametron logic

схе́ма логи́ческая схе́ма на поро́говых элеме́нтах — threshold logic

логи́ческая схе́ма на транзи́сторах и рези́сторах — resistor-transistor logic

логи́ческая, потенциа́льная схе́ма — level logic

логи́ческая, рези́сторно-транзи́сторная схе́ма — resistor-transistor logic

логи́ческая схе́ма с па́мятью — sequential logic circuit, sequential logic network

логи́ческая, транзи́сторная схе́ма с непосре́дственными свя́зями — direct-coupled transistor logic

маке́тная схе́ма — breadboard model

ма́тричная схе́ма — matrix circuit

микроминиатю́рная схе́ма — microminiature [micromin] circuit

микроэлектро́нная схе́ма — microelectronic circuit

мнемони́ческая схе́ма — mimic diagram

многофункциона́льная схе́ма — multifunction circuit

модели́рующая схе́ма — analog circuit

мо́дульная схе́ма — modular(ized) circuit

молекуля́рная схе́ма — molecular circuit

монта́жная схе́ма — wiring diagram, wiring lay-out

мостова́я схе́ма эл. — bridge circuit

схе́ма набо́ра зада́чи, структу́рная вчт. — problem set-up

нагля́дная схе́ма — pictorial diagram

схе́ма нака́чки — pump(ing) circuit

схе́ма на не́скольких криста́лликах — multichip circuit

схе́ма на не́скольких чи́пах — multichip circuit

схе́ма на то́лстых плё́нках — thick-film circuit

схе́ма на то́нких плё́нках — thin-film circuit

схе́ма на транзи́сторах — transistor circuit

схе́ма НЕ — NOT circuit, NOT gate

невзаи́мная схе́ма — unilateral [nonreciprocal] network

схе́ма НЕ И — NOT AND [NAND] circuit, NOT AND [NAND] gate

схе́ма НЕ ИЛИ — NOT OR circuit, NOT OR circuit, NOT OR gate

нелине́йная схе́ма — non-linear circuit, non-linear network

схе́ма несовпаде́ния — non-coincidence [anticoincidence] circuit

схе́ма образова́ния дополне́ния (числа́) вчт. — complementer

схе́ма образова́ния дополни́тельного ко́да (числа́) вчт. — 2's complementer

схе́ма образова́ния обра́тного ко́да (числа́) вчт. — 1's complementer

схе́ма обра́тной корре́кции радио — deemphasis circuit

схе́ма обра́тной свя́зи — feedback circuit

схе́ма объедине́ния — OR circuit, OR gate

однолине́йная схе́ма эл. — single-line diagram, single-line scheme

однота́ктная схе́ма — single-ended circuit

опти́ческая схе́ма (напр. микроскопа) — optical train

переключа́ющая схе́ма — switch(ing) [commutation] circuit

переключа́ющая схе́ма на криотро́нах — cryotron switching [commutation] circuit

пересчё́тная схе́ма — scaler, scaling circuit

пересчё́тная, бина́рная схе́ма — scale-of-two circuit, binary scaler

пересчё́тная, дека́дная схе́ма — scale-of-ten circuit, decade scaler

пересчё́тная, кольцева́я схе́ма — ring scaler

пересчё́тная схе́ма с коэффицие́нтом пересчё́та — N scale-of-N circuit, modulo-N scaler

печа́тная схе́ма — printed circuit

печа́тная, микроминиатю́рная схе́ма — microprinted circuit

схе́ма пита́ния, однони́точная тепл. — single-run feeding system

схе́ма пита́ния, паралле́льная радио — parallel feed

схе́ма пита́ния ано́дной це́пи ла́мпы, паралле́льная — parallel feed is used in the anode circuit

плана́рная схе́ма — planar circuit

пневмати́ческая схе́ма — pneumatic circuit

схе́ма повтори́теля ( логический элемент) — OR circuit, OR gate

поро́говая схе́ма — threshold circuit

потенциа́льная схе́ма — level circuit

принципиа́льная схе́ма

1. ( изображение) schematic (diagram); (неэлектрическая, напр. механического устройства) (simplified) line diagram; ( пневматического или гидравлического устройства) flow diagram (of an apparatus)

2. ( материальный объект) fundamental [basic] circuit arrangement

схе́ма прове́рки — test set-up

собра́ть схе́му прове́рки по рис. 1 — establish the test set-up shown in Fig. 1

схе́ма прове́рки чё́тности — parity checker

схе́ма произво́дственного проце́сса, маршру́тная — plant flow diagram, route sheet

схе́ма прока́тки — rolling schedule

противоколеба́тельная схе́ма — antihurt circuit

противоме́стная схе́ма тлф. — antisidetone circuit

схе́ма проце́сса, технологи́ческая

1. ( диаграмма) flow chart, flow sheet, flow diagram

2. ( размещение производственного оборудования) plant layout

схе́ма пупиниза́ции свз. — loading scheme

пускова́я схе́ма

1. тепл. start-up system

2. элк. trigger circuit

пускова́я, однора́зовая схе́ма элк. — single-shot trigger circuit

развя́зывающая схе́ма свз. — isolation network

схе́ма разделе́ния — separation circuit

схе́ма разноимё́нности — exclusive OR circuit; exclusive OR [non-equivalence] element

схе́ма распа́да физ. — decay [disintegration] scheme

схе́ма расположе́ния — lay-out diagram

схе́ма расположе́ния ламп радио — tube-location diagram

схе́ма распределе́ния па́мяти — memory allocation scheme

регенерати́вная схе́ма — regenerative [positive feedback] circuit

реже́кторная схе́ма — rejector circuit

релаксацио́нная схе́ма — relaxation circuit

реле́йно-конта́ктная схе́ма — (relay) switching circuit

схе́ма самолё́та, аэродинами́ческая — airplane configuration

схе́ма с двумя́ усто́йчивыми состоя́ниями — bistable circuit

схе́ма селе́кции дви́жущихся це́лей — moving target indicator [MTI] canceller

схе́ма с заземлё́нной се́ткой — grounded-grid [common-grid] circuit

схе́ма с заземлё́нным като́дом — grounded-cathode [common-emitter] circuit

схе́ма с заземлё́нным колле́ктором — grounded-collector [common-collector] circuit

схе́ма с заземлё́нным эми́ттером — grounded-emitter [common-emitter] circuit

симметри́чная схе́ма — symmetrical circuit

схе́ма синхрониза́ции — sync(hronizing) circuit

схе́ма синхрониза́ции, гла́вная — master clock

схе́ма с като́дной свя́зью — cathode-coupled circuit

скеле́тная схе́ма — skeleton diagram

схе́ма сма́зки — lubrication diagram, lubrication chart

схе́ма смеще́ния це́нтра развё́ртки — off-centring circuit

собира́тельная схе́ма — OR circuit, OR gate

схе́ма с о́бщей като́дной нагру́зкой, парафа́зная — long-tail-pair circuit

схе́ма совпаде́ния — AND [coincidence] circuit, AND gate

схе́ма с одни́м усто́йчивым состоя́нием — monostable circuit

схе́ма соедине́ний — (diagram of) connections

схе́ма соедине́ния трансформа́тора — winding connection(s)

спускова́я схе́ма элк. — trigger circuit

схе́ма сравне́ния — comparison circuit

схе́ма с разделе́нием сигна́лов по частоте́ ( форма организации связи или системы) — frequency-division multiplex [FDM] working

стабилизи́рующая схе́ма — stabilizing circuit

структу́рная схе́ма — block diagram

сумми́рующая схе́ма — ( дискретных сигналов) add(ing) circuit; ( аналоговых сигналов) summing circuit

схе́ма счё́та ( последовательность арифметических и логических операторов в алгоритме ЭВМ) — path of control

счё́тная схе́ма — counting circuit

твердоте́льная схе́ма — solid-state circuit

твердоте́льная, эпитаксиа́льная схе́ма — epitaxial solid circuit

Т-обра́зная схе́ма — T-circuit, T-network

схе́ма токопрохожде́ния — signal-flow diagram

толстоплё́ночная схе́ма — thick-film circuit

тонкоплё́ночная схе́ма — thin-film circuit

транзи́сторная схе́ма — transistor(ized) circuit

схе́ма трёхто́чки, ё́мкостная — Colpitts oscillator (circuit)

схе́ма трёхто́чки, индукти́вная — Hartley oscillator (circuit)

схе́ма удвое́ния — doubling circuit, doubler

схе́ма удлине́ния и́мпульсов — pulse stretcher

схе́ма умноже́ния — multiply(ing) circuit

схе́ма умноже́ния на два — multiply-by-2 circuit

схе́ма управле́ния — control circuit

усредня́ющая схе́ма — averaging circuit, averager

схе́ма фа́зовой автомати́ческой подстро́йки частоты́ [ФАПЧ] — phase-lock loop, PLL

фазовраща́тельная схе́ма — phase-shifting network

фикси́рующая схе́ма — clamp(ing) circuit, clamper

формиру́ющая схе́ма — shaping circuit, shaper

функциона́льная схе́ма — functional (block) diagram; вчт. logic diagram

цепна́я схе́ма — ladder circuit, ladder [recurrent] network

эквивале́нтная схе́ма — equivalent circuit

схе́ма экскава́ции горн. — excavation scheme

электри́ческая схе́ма — circuit diagram

электро́нная схе́ма — electronic circuit

схе́ма электропрово́дки — wiring diagram

схе́ма энергети́ческих у́ровней — energy-level diagram

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